Teachers have important effects on whether students face arrest, conviction, and incarceration later in life that correlate with impacts on suspensions and attendance, not test scores.

Globally and in the US, the poor exhibit cognitive fatigue more quickly than the rich, and they also attend schools that offer fewer opportunities to practice thinking for continuous stretches.

Achieving meaningful achievement gains from reallocating teachers within a district requires directly affecting teachers’ preferences over schools; in contrast, directly affecting principals’ selection of teachers can lower student achievement.